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small update on neural networks

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mhjensen
2018-10-16 13:54:54 +02:00
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@@ -92,54 +92,55 @@ Automatically generated HTML file from DocOnce source
'___sec30'),
('Defining the cost function', 2, None, '___sec31'),
('Example: binary classification problem', 2, None, '___sec32'),
('The Softmax function', 2, None, '___sec33'),
('Developing a code for doing neural networks with back '
'propagation',
2,
None,
'___sec33'),
('Collect and pre-process data', 2, None, '___sec34'),
('Train and test datasets', 2, None, '___sec35'),
('Define model and architecture', 2, None, '___sec36'),
('Layers', 2, None, '___sec37'),
('Weights and biases', 2, None, '___sec38'),
('Feed-forward pass', 2, None, '___sec39'),
('Matrix multiplications', 2, None, '___sec40'),
('Choose cost function and optimizer', 2, None, '___sec41'),
('Optimizing the cost function', 2, None, '___sec42'),
('Regularization', 2, None, '___sec43'),
('Matrix multiplication', 2, None, '___sec44'),
('Improving performance', 2, None, '___sec45'),
('Full object-oriented implementation', 2, None, '___sec46'),
('Evaluate model performance on test data', 2, None, '___sec47'),
('Adjust hyperparameters', 2, None, '___sec48'),
('Visualization', 2, None, '___sec49'),
('scikit-learn implementation', 2, None, '___sec50'),
('Visualization', 2, None, '___sec51'),
'___sec34'),
('Collect and pre-process data', 2, None, '___sec35'),
('Train and test datasets', 2, None, '___sec36'),
('Define model and architecture', 2, None, '___sec37'),
('Layers', 2, None, '___sec38'),
('Weights and biases', 2, None, '___sec39'),
('Feed-forward pass', 2, None, '___sec40'),
('Matrix multiplications', 2, None, '___sec41'),
('Choose cost function and optimizer', 2, None, '___sec42'),
('Optimizing the cost function', 2, None, '___sec43'),
('Regularization', 2, None, '___sec44'),
('Matrix multiplication', 2, None, '___sec45'),
('Improving performance', 2, None, '___sec46'),
('Full object-oriented implementation', 2, None, '___sec47'),
('Evaluate model performance on test data', 2, None, '___sec48'),
('Adjust hyperparameters', 2, None, '___sec49'),
('Visualization', 2, None, '___sec50'),
('scikit-learn implementation', 2, None, '___sec51'),
('Visualization', 2, None, '___sec52'),
('Building neural networks in Tensorflow and Keras',
2,
None,
'___sec52'),
('Tensorflow', 2, None, '___sec53'),
('Collect and pre-process data', 2, None, '___sec54'),
('Using TensorFlow backend', 2, None, '___sec55'),
('Optimizing and using gradient descent', 2, None, '___sec56'),
('Using Keras', 2, None, '___sec57'),
('Which activation function should I use?', 2, None, '___sec58'),
'___sec53'),
('Tensorflow', 2, None, '___sec54'),
('Collect and pre-process data', 2, None, '___sec55'),
('Using TensorFlow backend', 2, None, '___sec56'),
('Optimizing and using gradient descent', 2, None, '___sec57'),
('Using Keras', 2, None, '___sec58'),
('Which activation function should I use?', 2, None, '___sec59'),
('Is the Logistic activation function (Sigmoid) our choice?',
2,
None,
'___sec59'),
('The derivative of the Logistic funtion', 2, None, '___sec60'),
('The RELU function family', 2, None, '___sec61'),
('Which activation function should we use?', 2, None, '___sec62'),
'___sec60'),
('The derivative of the Logistic funtion', 2, None, '___sec61'),
('The RELU function family', 2, None, '___sec62'),
('Which activation function should we use?', 2, None, '___sec63'),
('A top-down perspective on Neural networks',
2,
None,
'___sec63'),
'___sec64'),
('Limitations of supervised learning with deep networks',
2,
None,
'___sec64')]}
'___sec65')]}
end of tocinfo -->
<body>
@@ -210,38 +211,39 @@ MathJax.Hub.Config({
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs031.html#___sec30" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Setting up a Multi-layer perceptron model for classification</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs032.html#___sec31" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Defining the cost function</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs033.html#___sec32" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Example: binary classification problem</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs034.html#___sec33" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Developing a code for doing neural networks with back propagation</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs035.html#___sec34" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Collect and pre-process data</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs036.html#___sec35" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Train and test datasets</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs037.html#___sec36" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Define model and architecture</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs038.html#___sec37" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Layers</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs039.html#___sec38" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Weights and biases</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs040.html#___sec39" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Feed-forward pass</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs041.html#___sec40" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Matrix multiplications</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs042.html#___sec41" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Choose cost function and optimizer</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs043.html#___sec42" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Optimizing the cost function</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs044.html#___sec43" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Regularization</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="#___sec44" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Matrix multiplication</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs046.html#___sec45" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Improving performance</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs047.html#___sec46" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Full object-oriented implementation</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs048.html#___sec47" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Evaluate model performance on test data</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs049.html#___sec48" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Adjust hyperparameters</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs050.html#___sec49" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Visualization</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs051.html#___sec50" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>scikit-learn implementation</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs052.html#___sec51" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Visualization</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs053.html#___sec52" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Building neural networks in Tensorflow and Keras</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs054.html#___sec53" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Tensorflow</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs055.html#___sec54" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Collect and pre-process data</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs056.html#___sec55" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Using TensorFlow backend</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs057.html#___sec56" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Optimizing and using gradient descent</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs058.html#___sec57" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Using Keras</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs059.html#___sec58" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Which activation function should I use?</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs060.html#___sec59" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Is the Logistic activation function (Sigmoid) our choice?</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs061.html#___sec60" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>The derivative of the Logistic funtion</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs062.html#___sec61" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>The RELU function family</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs063.html#___sec62" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Which activation function should we use?</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs064.html#___sec63" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>A top-down perspective on Neural networks</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs065.html#___sec64" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Limitations of supervised learning with deep networks</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs034.html#___sec33" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>The Softmax function</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs035.html#___sec34" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Developing a code for doing neural networks with back propagation</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs036.html#___sec35" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Collect and pre-process data</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs037.html#___sec36" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Train and test datasets</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs038.html#___sec37" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Define model and architecture</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs039.html#___sec38" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Layers</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs040.html#___sec39" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Weights and biases</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs041.html#___sec40" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Feed-forward pass</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs042.html#___sec41" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Matrix multiplications</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs043.html#___sec42" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Choose cost function and optimizer</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs044.html#___sec43" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Optimizing the cost function</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="#___sec44" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Regularization</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs046.html#___sec45" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Matrix multiplication</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs047.html#___sec46" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Improving performance</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs048.html#___sec47" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Full object-oriented implementation</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs049.html#___sec48" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Evaluate model performance on test data</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs050.html#___sec49" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Adjust hyperparameters</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs051.html#___sec50" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Visualization</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs052.html#___sec51" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>scikit-learn implementation</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs053.html#___sec52" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Visualization</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs054.html#___sec53" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Building neural networks in Tensorflow and Keras</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs055.html#___sec54" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Tensorflow</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs056.html#___sec55" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Collect and pre-process data</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs057.html#___sec56" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Using TensorFlow backend</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs058.html#___sec57" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Optimizing and using gradient descent</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs059.html#___sec58" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Using Keras</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs060.html#___sec59" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Which activation function should I use?</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs061.html#___sec60" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Is the Logistic activation function (Sigmoid) our choice?</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs062.html#___sec61" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>The derivative of the Logistic funtion</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs063.html#___sec62" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>The RELU function family</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs064.html#___sec63" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Which activation function should we use?</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs065.html#___sec64" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>A top-down perspective on Neural networks</b></a></li>
<!-- navigation toc: --> <li><a href="._NeuralNet-bs066.html#___sec65" style="font-size: 80%;"><b>Limitations of supervised learning with deep networks</b></a></li>
</ul>
</li>
@@ -255,119 +257,38 @@ MathJax.Hub.Config({
<p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p><p>&nbsp;</p> <!-- add vertical space -->
<a name="part0045"></a>
<!-- !split -->
<!-- !split -->
<h2 id="___sec44" class="anchor">Matrix multiplication </h2>
<h2 id="___sec44" class="anchor">Regularization </h2>
<p>
To more efficently train our network these equations are implemented using matrix operations.
The error in the output layer is calculated simply as, with \( \hat{t} \) being our targets,
$$ \delta_L = \hat{t} - \hat{y} = (n_{inputs}, n_{categories}) .$$
It is common to add an extra term to the cost function, proportional
to the size of the weights. This is equivalent to constraining the
size of the weights, so that they do not grow out of control.
Constraining the size of the weights means that the weights cannot
grow arbitrarily large to fit the training data, and in this way
reduces <em>overfitting</em>.
<p>
The gradient for the output weights is calculated as
We will measure the size of the weights using the so called <em>L2-norm</em>, meaning our cost function becomes:
$$ \nabla W_{L} = \hat{a}^T \delta_L = (n_{hidden}, n_{categories}) ,$$
$$ \nabla \mathcal{C}(\theta) = \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^N \nabla \mathcal{L}_i(\theta) \quad \rightarrow \quad
\frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^N \nabla \mathcal{L}_i(\theta) + \lambda \lvert \lvert \hat{w} \rvert \rvert_2^2
= \frac{1}{N} \sum_{i=1}^N \nabla \mathcal{L}(\theta) + \lambda \sum_{ij} w_{ij}^2,$$
<p>
where \( \hat{a} = (n_{inputs}, n_{hidden}) \). This simply means that we are summing up the gradients for each input.
Since we are going backwards we have to transpose the activation matrix.
i.e. we sum up all the weights squared. The factor \( \lambda \) is known as a regularization parameter.
<p>
The gradient with respect to the output bias is then
In order to train the model, we need to calculate the derivative of
the cost function with respect to every bias and weight in the
network. In total our network has \( (64 + 1)\times 50=3250 \) weights in
the hidden layer and \( (50 + 1)\times 10=510 \) weights to the output
layer (\( +1 \) for the bias), and the gradient must be calculated for
every parameter. We use the <em>backpropagation</em> algorithm discussed
above. This is a clever use of the chain rule that allows us to
calculate the gradient efficently.
$$ \nabla \hat{b}_{L} = \sum_{i=1}^{n_{inputs}} \delta_L = (n_{categories}) .$$
<p>
The error in the hidden layer is
$$ \Delta_h = \delta_L W_{L}^T \circ f'(z_{h}) = \delta_L W_{L}^T \circ a_{h} \circ (1 - a_{h}) = (n_{inputs}, n_{hidden}) ,$$
<p>
where \( f'(a_{h}) \) is the derivative of the activation in the hidden layer. The matrix products mean
that we are summing up the products for each neuron in the output layer. The symbol \( \circ \) denotes
the <em>Hadamard product</em>, meaning element-wise multiplication.
<p>
This again gives us the gradients in the hidden layer:
$$ \nabla W_{h} = X^T \delta_h = (n_{features}, n_{hidden}) ,$$
$$ \nabla b_{h} = \sum_{i=1}^{n_{inputs}} \delta_h = (n_{hidden}) .$$
<p>
<!-- code=python (!bc pycod) typeset with pygments style "default" -->
<div class="highlight" style="background: #f8f8f8"><pre style="line-height: 125%"><span></span><span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># to categorical turns our integer vector into a onehot representation</span>
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">from</span> <span style="color: #0000FF; font-weight: bold">sklearn.metrics</span> <span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">import</span> accuracy_score
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># one-hot in numpy</span>
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">def</span> <span style="color: #0000FF">to_categorical_numpy</span>(integer_vector):
n_inputs <span style="color: #666666">=</span> <span style="color: #008000">len</span>(integer_vector)
n_categories <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>max(integer_vector) <span style="color: #666666">+</span> <span style="color: #666666">1</span>
onehot_vector <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>zeros((n_inputs, n_categories))
onehot_vector[<span style="color: #008000">range</span>(n_inputs), integer_vector] <span style="color: #666666">=</span> <span style="color: #666666">1</span>
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">return</span> onehot_vector
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic">#Y_train_onehot, Y_test_onehot = to_categorical(Y_train), to_categorical(Y_test)</span>
Y_train_onehot, Y_test_onehot <span style="color: #666666">=</span> to_categorical_numpy(Y_train), to_categorical_numpy(Y_test)
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">def</span> <span style="color: #0000FF">feed_forward_train</span>(X):
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># weighted sum of inputs to the hidden layer</span>
z_h <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>matmul(X, hidden_weights) <span style="color: #666666">+</span> hidden_bias
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># activation in the hidden layer</span>
a_h <span style="color: #666666">=</span> sigmoid(z_h)
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># weighted sum of inputs to the output layer</span>
z_o <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>matmul(a_h, output_weights) <span style="color: #666666">+</span> output_bias
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># softmax output</span>
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># axis 0 holds each input and axis 1 the probabilities of each category</span>
exp_term <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>exp(z_o)
probabilities <span style="color: #666666">=</span> exp_term <span style="color: #666666">/</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>sum(exp_term, axis<span style="color: #666666">=1</span>, keepdims<span style="color: #666666">=</span><span style="color: #008000">True</span>)
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># for backpropagation need activations in hidden and output layers</span>
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">return</span> a_h, probabilities
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">def</span> <span style="color: #0000FF">backpropagation</span>(X, Y):
a_h, probabilities <span style="color: #666666">=</span> feed_forward_train(X)
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># error in the output layer</span>
error_output <span style="color: #666666">=</span> probabilities <span style="color: #666666">-</span> Y
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># error in the hidden layer</span>
error_hidden <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>matmul(error_output, output_weights<span style="color: #666666">.</span>T) <span style="color: #666666">*</span> a_h <span style="color: #666666">*</span> (<span style="color: #666666">1</span> <span style="color: #666666">-</span> a_h)
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># gradients for the output layer</span>
output_weights_gradient <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>matmul(a_h<span style="color: #666666">.</span>T, error_output)
output_bias_gradient <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>sum(error_output, axis<span style="color: #666666">=0</span>)
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># gradient for the hidden layer</span>
hidden_weights_gradient <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>matmul(X<span style="color: #666666">.</span>T, error_hidden)
hidden_bias_gradient <span style="color: #666666">=</span> np<span style="color: #666666">.</span>sum(error_hidden, axis<span style="color: #666666">=0</span>)
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">return</span> output_weights_gradient, output_bias_gradient, hidden_weights_gradient, hidden_bias_gradient
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">print</span>(<span style="color: #BA2121">&quot;Old accuracy on training data: &quot;</span> <span style="color: #666666">+</span> <span style="color: #008000">str</span>(accuracy_score(predict(X_train), Y_train)))
eta <span style="color: #666666">=</span> <span style="color: #666666">0.01</span>
lmbd <span style="color: #666666">=</span> <span style="color: #666666">0.01</span>
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">for</span> i <span style="color: #AA22FF; font-weight: bold">in</span> <span style="color: #008000">range</span>(<span style="color: #666666">1000</span>):
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># calculate gradients</span>
dWo, dBo, dWh, dBh <span style="color: #666666">=</span> backpropagation(X_train, Y_train_onehot)
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># regularization term gradients</span>
dWo <span style="color: #666666">+=</span> lmbd <span style="color: #666666">*</span> output_weights
dWh <span style="color: #666666">+=</span> lmbd <span style="color: #666666">*</span> hidden_weights
<span style="color: #408080; font-style: italic"># update weights and biases</span>
output_weights <span style="color: #666666">-=</span> eta <span style="color: #666666">*</span> dWo
output_bias <span style="color: #666666">-=</span> eta <span style="color: #666666">*</span> dBo
hidden_weights <span style="color: #666666">-=</span> eta <span style="color: #666666">*</span> dWh
hidden_bias <span style="color: #666666">-=</span> eta <span style="color: #666666">*</span> dBh
<span style="color: #008000; font-weight: bold">print</span>(<span style="color: #BA2121">&quot;New accuracy on training data: &quot;</span> <span style="color: #666666">+</span> <span style="color: #008000">str</span>(accuracy_score(predict(X_train), Y_train)))
</pre></div>
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@@ -394,7 +315,7 @@ lmbd <span style="color: #666666">=</span> <span style="color: #666666">0.01</sp
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